Contributions of Ancient Arabian and Egyptian Scientists on Chemistry

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Contributions of Ancient Arabian and Egyptian Scientists on Chemistry

Contributions of Ancient Arabian and Egyptian				The question arises whether the metals are of
Scientists on Chemistry				specific differences, each constituting a
				distinct species, or whether they differ in
Md. Wasim Aktar* and M. Paramasivam				certain properties and qualities and
				constitute different kinds of one and the
Deptt. of Agril. Chemicals, Bidhan Chandra				same species?
Krishi Viswavidyalaya, Mohanpur, Nadia, West
Bengal, India.				AbÃƒÂ¼ Nasr al-FÃƒÂ¤rabi and his
				followers held the opinion that the
Abstracts				difference in metals is caused by certain
				conditions such as humidity and dryness,
The modern chemistry is based on the findings				softness and hardness, and colours such as
and thinking of the people of historical age.				yellow, white and black. According to him the
If no one knows the base and work of the				metals are different kinds of one and the
previous on a subject, he or she could mere				same species.
develop a new thought or findings. For, a
civilization must know its past. Hence, the				On the other hand, Ibn Sina and his followers
present work is a small effort to find out				believed that metals have specific
the contribution of ancient Arabian and				differences and belong to different species,
Egyptian scientists in the field of				each of which has its own differential and
Chemistry. Different scientists of different				genus, like all other species.
school of thought, correlating different
streams of science being Chemistry as a main				According to AbÃƒÂ¼ Nasr
subject, are described in the present work.				al-FÃƒÂ¤rÃƒÂ£bi, it is possible to
				transform one metal into another, because it
Chemistry deals with the composition and				is possible to change their conditions.
properties of substances and the changes of
composition they undergo. It has been divided				"Ibn SinÃƒ thought that such
into Inorganic and Organic. The conception of				transformation was impossible. His assumption
this in modern Chemistry came from				is based on the fact that specific
al-RÃƒÂ£zi's classification of chemical				differences in metals cannot be changed by
substances into mineral, vegetable and				artificial means. He believed that since the
animal. Inorganic Chemistry, deals with the				metals are created by the Creator and
preparation and properties of the elements,				Determiner of things, God Almighty, and the
and their compounds, originally arose from				mystery of their real character was utterly
the study of minerals and metals, whereas				unknown and could not be perceived, any
Organic Chemistry, which deals with carbon				attempt for transformation would be
compounds, developed through the				meaningless". (18)
investigation of animal and plant products.
				Ancient Arabs' art of transformation of
Prior to 1828 it was not possible to				metals was based upon Hellenistic and Iranian
synthesize organic substances from their				traditions, but apparently the main
elements and, therefore, it was supposed that				principles and the main operations were
there existed fundamental difference between				already established long before the 12th
Organic and Inorganic Chemistry. In 1828 F.				century. Before this century the Arabs had
Wohler synthetically prepared urea, an				not only made many experiments, and produced
organic substance; thereby revealing that				several works on this art, but they had begun
there was no fundamental difference between				to doubt and criticise the most advanced
these two branches of Chemistry. Since carbon				theories concerning it. This proves that the
compounds were numerous, their study				standard of their chemical thinking was
separately made under Organic Chemistry, and				advanced.
study of elements and non-carbon compounds
included in Inorganic Chemistry'. (1)				The 12th and 13th centuries added very little
				to their knowledge about the transformation
The earliest discoveries in Inorganic				of metals, but their research continued in
Chemistry were made in metallurgy, Materia				various fields. The main chemical writer of
Medica, painting, enameling, glazing,				this age was Abu'l-QÃƒÂ£sim Muhammad
glass-making, arts, etc. These arts, and many				al-Iraqi who flourished in the second half of
metals, compounds and alloys were known to				the 13th century. He was an experimenter and
the Arabs. Similarly, the discoveries in				a theorist. His works represent the full
Organic Chemistry were made in the arts of				development of the Arabic doctrine. (19)
dyeing, tanning, the manufacture of paper, in
the study of fats, both of plant and animal				The 14th century was an enlightened period
origin, in medicine, etc. Thus Chemistry had				when a group of intelligent writers began to
its sources in photo techniques, mineralogy,				reject the idea of transformation of metals
metallurgy, Materia Medica and decorative				by chemical means. One of such person was a
arts. It is the product of transmutation of				historian, Rashid al-Din who described such
baser metals into goldand philosophical				chemical practice in Mongol Persia and
thoughts of practical or theoretical				expressed his distrust of such chemists. The
interest. Finally, it is the result of the				large encyclopaedic work Nukhbat al-Dahr of
study of the properties of the substances.				al-Dimashqi contains, in part second, much
				information on metal, their properties, and
A Greek philosopher, Empedocles, held the				influences. (19) As usual in Arabic
view that all the four elements, air, water,				treatises, chemistry is mixed up with
earth and fire, were the primal elements, and				mineralogy and geology. (20)
that the various substances were made by
their intermixing. He regarded them to be				Even in their purely chemical researches on
distinct and unchangeable. Aristotle				transformation of metals, the Arab chemists
considered these elements to be changeable				achieved by no means unimportant results. In
i.e., one kind of matter could be changed				their efforts to discover Elixir they often
into another kind. (2)				discovered new chemical processes, and hit
				upon the catalytic properties of various
JÃƒÂ¡bir ibn HayyÃƒÂ£n (Liatinized as				substances. The pains, which they took in the
Geber), a great Arabian Chemist of the 8th				search of gold, ultimately resulted in their
century A.C., modified the Aristotelian				great contribution to the development of
doctrine of the four elements, and presented				modern chemistry.
the so-called sulphur-mercury theory of
metals. According to this theory metals				The last important chemist of the 14th
differ essentially because of different				century was 'Izz al-Din 'Ali Ibn al- Jildaki.
proportions of sulphur and mercury in them.				Some twenty treatises are ascribed to him.
He also formulated the theory of geologic				The list shows al-Jildaki's great activity as
formation of metals.				a chemical writer. A complete study of his
				vast writings is necessary to know what he
Unlike his Greek predecessors, he did not				actually tried to establish. To some extent,
merely speculate, but performed experiments				this study was made by Ruska, Stapleton, Holm
to reach certain conclusions. He recognized				yard, and their disciples.
and stated the importance of experimentation
in Chemistry. He combined the theoretical				One of al-Jildaki's important books entitled
knowledge of the Greeks and practical				NihÃƒÂ¢yat al-Talab fi Sharh al-Muktasab
knowledge of the craftsmen, and himself made				contains many quotations from the earlier
noteworthy advance both in the theory and				works, and some novelties, as the use of
practice of Chemistry.				nitric acid to extract silver out of the
				gold-silver alloy. Al- Jildaki remarked that
JÃƒÂ¢bir's contribution to Chemistry is				the substances do not react except by
very great. He gave a scientific description				definite weights. (21) This is one of the
of two principle operations of Chemistry. One				four fundamental laws of modern chemistry.
of them is calcinations which is employed in
the extraction of metals from their ores. The				The ancient chemists applied their chemical
other is reduction which is employed in				knowledge to a large number of industrial
numerous chemical treatments. He improved				arts. Only three such arts are mentioned
upon the methods of evaporation, melting,				here, which will enable the readers to
distillation, sublimation and				estimate the extent of their knowledge of
crystallization. These are the fundamental				Applied Chemistry.
methods employed for the purification of
chemical substances, enabling the chemist to				Paper:
study their properties and uses, and to
prepare them. The process of distillation is				Paper was invented by the Chinese who
particularly applied for taking extract of				prepared it from the cocoon of the silkworm.
plant material.				Some specimens of Chinese paper extant date
				back to the second century A.C. The first
In the opinion of JÃƒ bir the cultivation				manufacture of the paper outside China
of gold was not the only object of a chemist.				occurred in Samarqand (757). When Samarqand
The preparation of new chemical substances				was captured by Arabs the manufacture of
was also regarded by him as the chief object				paper spread over the whole Arab world
of Chemistry. We owe to him for the first				including the Maghrib. (Tunis, Morocco,
preparation of such substances as arsenic and				Algiers).
antimony from their sulphides, and basic lead
carbonate. He also did important work in the				By the end of the 12th century there were
preparation of steel, and the refinement of				four hundred paper mills in Fasalone. In
metals. JÃƒ bir also deals with such				Spain the main centre of manufacture of paper
applications as the use of manganese dioxide				was Shatiba which remained a ancient Arab
in glass-making, varnishes to water-proof				city until 1239. Cordova was the centre of
cloth and protect iron use of iron pyrites				the business of paper in Spain.
for writing in gold and distillation of
vinegar to concentrate acetic acid.				The Arabs developed this art. They prepared
				paper not only from silk, but also from
The most important discovery made by Jabir				cotton, rags and wood.In the middle of the
was the preparation of sulphuric acid. The				10th century the paper industry was
importance of this discovery can be realized				introduced in Spain. In Khurasan paper was
by the fact that in this modern age the				made of linen.
extent of the industrial progress of a
country is mostly judged by the amount of.				There is an early treatise dealing with
sulphuric acid consumed in that country.				paper-making, the Umdat al-Kuttab wa 'Uddatu
Another important acid prepared by him was				dhawi'l-AlbÃƒÂ£b which is ascribed to the
nitric acid which he obtained by distilling a				Amir al- Mu'izz' Ibn Badis, a ruler of the
mixture of alum (of Yemen) and copper				Zayri dynasty (1015-61) in Tunis. The 11th
sulphate (of Cyprus). Then by dissolving				chapter of this treatise, dealing with paper,
ammonium chloride into this acid, he prepared				has been edited, translated and elaborately
aqua regia which, unlike acids, could				discussed by the foremost student of Arabic
dissolve gold in it.				paper, Josef Karabacek. This work explains
				how to prepare the pulp, make the sheets,
Jabir classified chemical substances, on the				wash and clean them, colour, polish and paste
basis of some distinctive features, into				them, and give them an antique appearance. No
bodies (gold, silver, etc.) and souls				text comparable to this in any other language
(mercury, sulphur, etc.) to make the study of				of so early a date is known.
their properties easier.
				The preparation of pulp involves a large
JÃƒÂ£bir is the author of a large number				number of complicated chemical processes,
of books on chemistry and a book on				which shows the advancement of the chemical
astrolabe. About one hundred chemical works				knowledge of the Arabs and Egyptians at that
ascribed to him are extant. His fame chiefly				time.
rests on his chemical books preserved in
Arabic. (3)				The manufacture of writing-paper in Spain is
				one of the most beneficial contributions of
We find that the author recognized and stated				Arabs to Europe. Without paper the scale on
clearly the importance of experimentation				which popular education in Europe developed
more clearly than any other early chemist. He				would have not been possible. The preparation
remarkably sound views on methods of chemical				of paper from silk would have been impossible
research. It is impossible to reach definite				in Europe due to the lack of silk production
conclusions regarding the extent of his				there. The Arabs method of producing paper
contributions until all the Arabic writings				from cotton could only be useful for the
ascribed to him have been properly edited and				Europeans. After Spain the art of
studied. But on the basis of our present				paper-making was established in Italy
knowledge, Jabir appears to be one of the				(1268-76). France owed its first paper mills
greatest scientist whose influence can be				to ancient Spain. From these countries the
traced throughout the whole period of the				industry spread throughout Europe.
historical development of the Arabian and
European chemistry. In the light of these				Another type of paper; marbled paper, which
facts it would not be improper to call				was common upon end-papers, paper covers and
JÃƒÂ£bir as the father of Chemistry.				edges of books, was prepared in the East, and
				exported to the West. About the preparation
Some of the chemical writings to which				of marbled paper Roger Bacon tells us: "The
JÃƒÂ£bir's name is attached were				Turks have a pretty art of chamoletting of
translated into Latin. The first such				paper, which is not with us in use. They take
version, the Book of the Composition of				diverse oiled colours, and put them severally
Alchemy was made by Robert of Chester in				(in drops) upon water; and stirr the water
1144. The Kitab al-Sab'in (the book of the				lightly and then wet their paper (being of
seventy) was translated by Gerard of Cremona				some thickness) with it, and the paper will
in the 12th century'. The translation of the				be waved, and veined, like Chamolet or
Sum of Perfection was made by Richard				Marble'.
Russell. One of his books has been translated
into French by Berthelot. (4)				Books bound in the West towards the end of
				the 16th century are found with end-papers
Several technical terms have passed from				brought from the East, but it was not until
JÃƒÂ£bir's Arabic writings through Latin				about a century later that European binders
into the European languages. Among these are				began to make them themselves. Hand-made
realgar (red sulphide of arsenic), tutia				marbled papers are now rarely used, but more
(zinc oxide), alkali, antimony, and alembic				or less clumsily reproduced imitations still
for distillation Vessel. The Arabic				serve various purposes.
equivalents for the last three words are
alqali, ithmad, and al-'anbiq respectively.				There is an Arabic word 'rizma' meaning a
(5)				bundle of merchandise, which had been adopted
				in almost every Western language with slight
Before JÃƒÂ£bir Ibn Hayyan, the Umayyad				variations to mean a bundle of paper
prince Khalid Ibn Yazid, who was a				(English: ream). This also testifies to the
philosopher, poet and chemist, encouraged				Arabic origin of that business in the West.
Greek philosophers in Egypt to translate				(22)
Greek scientific works into Arabic. These
were among the earliest translations in				Tiles :
Arabic from other languages. He was himself
deeply interested in medicine, astrology and				The industry of tile-making which involves a
chemistry. Many chemical works are ascribed				large number of complex technical and
to him. One of them is entitled Firdaus				chemical processes, was highly developed by
al-Hikmah fi'Ilm al-Kimiya. This work was in				Arabs. The earliest treatise, a Persian text,
verse, and contained 2,315 couplets. (6)				dealing with the manufacture of faience, was
				unique of its kind in world literature until
An encyclopaedic scientist, and philosopher,				the 16th century. It has been written by 'Abd
Abu Yusuf Ya'qub al-Kindi considered the art				Allah Ibn 'Ali KÃƒ shÃƒ ni in the 13th
of transformation of one metal into the other				century. This book entitled Jawahir
as an imposture. A few of 'his numerous works				al-'ArÃƒÂ£'is Wa Aja'ib al-NafÃƒÂ¤'is
dealing with many sciences are extant. One of				was written on precious stones and perfumes.
his works is on pharmacy, a branch of applied				It explains the manufacture of Faience, the
chemistry. (7)				ingredients (as clay, borax, feldspar,
				cobalt, lapis lazuli, lead, manganese, tin
Chemistry was usually mixed up with				etc.), their mixtures, the kiln processes and
mineralogy and geology. The oldest Arabian				implements, the methods of glazing and
lapidary which may serve as an important				decorating. This treatise is similar to the
source of chemistry was written by				various other treatises on precious stones
'UtÃƒÂ¤rid Ibn Muhammad al-HÃƒÂ£sib				written in Arabic and Persian. The final
who flourished in the ninth century. It deals				chapter deals with the art of enamelled
with the properties of precious stones. (8)				pottery. This account is specially valuable
				because it is based on actual and traditional
In the same century JÃƒÂ£bir's work was				practice. The maker of the beautiful lustre
further advanced by al-RÃƒÂ¤zi who wrote				'mihrab' (arch) of the tomb of Imam
many chemical treatises, and described a				YahyÃƒÂ£ (now in the Hermitage,
number of chemical instruments. One of his				Leningrad), dated 1305 A.C., Yusuf Ibn 'Ali
treatises consists of 25 pieces of chemical				Ibn Muhammad, was possibly a brother of the
apparatus. He made investigations on specific				author. (23)
gravity. One of his important works is on the
art of transformation of baser metals into				Ceramics:
the noble ones. He applied his chemical
knowledge for medical purposes, thus laying				The early history of Arabian and Egyptian
the foundation of Iatrochemistry. (9)				ceramics has not so far been written. Many
				interesting specimens have been discovered in
Other important chemists of this century were				recent years which throw much light on the
Dhu'l-NÃƒÂ¼n and al-JÃƒ hiz. The former				development of this industry in the Arab
mostly dealt with the art of transmutation of				world. The centers of this industry were
metals. (10) The latter prepared ammonia from				situated in Persia, Mesopotamia, Syria, Egypt
animal offals by dry distillation. (11)				and Valencia from where various types spread
				rapidly throughout the Islamic Caliphate.
In the tenth century Ibn Wahshiyah wrote on
chemistry, His work may help to understand				Under Arabian influence the potters in these
chemical symbolism. Maslamah Ibn Ahmad, an				Centers revived old technical processes,
astronomer, mathematician and oculist of this				developed new ones and began to experiment
century wrote two chemical works entitled,				with decorative and ornamental schemes. The
Rutbat al-Hakim and GhÃƒÂ£yat al-Hakim.				Arabian potters readily absorbed progressive
The second is well known in the Latin				ideas but atthe same time maintained great
translation made in 1252 by the order of King				originality. Two types of pottery were in
Alfonso under the title Picatrix. (12)				common use; enamelled and lustered. In
				enamelled pottery (the glazed earthenware)
A Persian pharmacologist AbÃƒÂ¼				the Ancient s, from an early period, were
MansÃƒÂ¼r Muwaffaq Ibn 'Ali al-Harawi who				expert masters. In lustered pottery also they
flourished in Herat in the tenth century, was				made great progress. "In this the design is
apparently the first to think of compiling a				painted in a metallic salt on a glazed
treatise on Materia Medica in Persian. He				surface and fixed by firing in smike in a way
travelled extensively in Persia and India to				that gives it a metallic gleam, which varies
obtain necessary information. He wrote,				in different specimens from a bright
between 968 and 977, a book entitled Kitab				copper-red to a greenish- yellow tint, and in
al-Abniyah 'an HaqÃƒÂ£'iq al-Adwiyah. It				some cases throws off brilliant iridescent
contains Greek, Syrian, Arabian, Persian, and				reflections. (24)
Indian knowledge. It deals with 585 remedies
(of which 466 are derived from plants, 75				In the last chapter of the Persian text Kitab
from minerals, and 44 from animals). He				al-JawÃƒÂ¤hir' al-'Ara'is Wa
classified them into four groups according to				'AjÃƒÂ£'ib al-Nafa'is, the author
their action, and gave the outline of a				describes the techniques of glazingwith two
general pharmacological theory.				fires (lustres), leaf building, over glaze
				decoration fired in a muffle kiln.
Abu MansÃƒÂ¼r distinguished between				(i.e.,separated from the flame, the source of
sodium carbonate (natrum) and potassium				heat being outside), haf't rang, a Persian
carbonate (qali). He had some knowledge of				termreferring to the seven colours of the
arsenious oxide, cupric oxide, silicic acid,				planets. There may be a reference to the
antimony and so on. He knew the toxicological				polychrome over glaze technique, the so
effects of copper and lead compounds, the				called minai ware (another Persian term;
depilatory virtue of quicklime, the				mina-wash means lustre; mina coloured). The
composition of plaster of Paris and its				author indicates differences between the art
surgical use. (13)				as practiced in Kashan, Baghdad and Tabriz.
				In Baghdad and Tabriz other kinds of firewood
The greatest Arabian surgeon, Khalaf Ibn				and potash were used.
'AbbÃƒÂ¤s al-ZahrÃƒÂ£wi (d. 1013)
wrote a great medical encyclopaedia,				In the 15th century the Arabian ceramic art
al-Tasrif in 30 sections, which contains				was followed by Italian potters, who obtained
interesting methods of preparing drugs by				much of the mature technical knowledge from
sublimation and distillation, but its most				Arab sources. This technical knowledge proved
important part is the surgical one. (14)				to be helpful in the revival of ceramic art
				during the Renaissance. (25)
AbÃƒÂ¼ Rayhan Muhammad al-BirÃƒÂ¼ni
(973-1048) took a great interest in the				REFERENCES :-
determination of the specific gravity of
eighteen precious stones and metals. A				1. Encyclopaedia Britannica, chicago, 1951,
voluminous unedited lapidary by al- Biruni is				p.360
extant in unique manuscript in the Escorial
Library. It contains a description of a great				2. Ibid., p. 355.
number of stones and metals from the natural,
commercial, and medical point of view.				3 Sarton George, Introduction to the History
Moreover, he composed a pharmacology				of Science, Washington, 1950, Vol I. p. 532.
(saydalah).Important information could
certainly be obtained from his unedited				4. Wasiti, Hakim Nayyar, Tibb al-'Arab (
works, on the origin of Indian and Chinese				ÃƒÂ£n Urdu Translation of Arabian
stones and drugs, which appeared in early				Medicine by Edward G. Browne), Lahore, 1954,
Arabic scientific works. (15)				p. 26.

Ibn SinÃƒ wrote a treatise on minerals,				5. Ibid.
which was very important and one of the main
sources of geological knowledge, also a				6. HÃƒÂ£ji Khalifah, Kashf
source of chemistry in Western Europe until				al-ZunÃƒÂ¼n, Istanbul, 1943. Vol., I, p.
the Renaissance.				1254.

As mentioned before, mineralogy stood in				Al-Zirakli, Khair al-Din, Al-'AlÃƒÂ£m
close relation to chemistry. Nearly fifty				vol. II p. 342.
Arabic lapidaries have been named. The best
known of them is. the 'Flowers of Knowledge				7. Sarton, op. cit., p. 559.
of Stones', by ShihÃƒ b al-Din
al-TifÃƒÂ£shi (died in Cairo in 1154). It				8. Ibid., p. 572. Al-Qifti, op. cit. p. 251.
gives in 25 chapters extensive information on
the subject of the same number of precious				9. Ibid., p. 271. Sarton, op. cit. p. 609.
stones, their origin, geography, examination,
purity, price, application for medicinal and				10. lbid, p. 592.
magical purposes, and so on. Except for Pliny
and the superior Aristotelian lapidary, he				11. lbid, p. 597.
quotes only Arabic authors. (16)
				12. Ibid., pp. 620, 668.
The output of the books on Chemistry was very
great after the eleventh century. Thus, there				13. Ibid., p. 678.
are known books of about forty Arabic and
Persian chemists. Ibn Khaldun, (d. 1406) the				14. Ibid., p. 681.
talented Arabian philosopher of history and
the greatest intellect of his century, was a				15 Ibid., p. 707.
violent opponent of the idea of transmutation
of metals by chemical means. (17)				16. Ibid, vol. II, part II, p. 650.

Some chemists thought that one metal can be				17. Ibn Khaldun, Muqaddimah, English
transformed into another by artificial				translation by Frenz Rosenthal, London,
methods. For such transformation they				1957, vol. 3, p. 267.
followed different procedures depending on
the character and form of the chemical				18. Ibid. p. 278
treatment and the substance chosen for this
purpose; the substance being called the				19. Haji. Khalifah, op. cit. p. 1936.
'Noble Stone' or 'Philosopher's Stone'. This
may be excrements, or blood, or hair, or				20. Sarton, op. cit vol. III, part I, p. 759.
eggs, or anything else. After the substance
has been specified, it is treated along				21. Ibid. Vol. II, Part. II, p. 1045.
certain lines mentioned in their books. The
result is an earthen or fluid substance which				22. Sarton, op. cit., Vol. III, Part I, p.
is called Elixir. These chemists think that				321.
if Elixir is added to silver which has been
heated in a fire, the silver turns into gold.				23. Sarton, op. cit vol. III , part I, p.
If added to copper which had been heated in a				756.
fire, the copper turns into silver.
				24 Arnold and Guillaume, op. cit. p. 125.

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